The Relationship Between Motivation Types and Metacognitive Listening Strategies: The Case of Adult EFL Students in Saudi

Research indicates that students across the globe consider listening to be the most challenging language skill to deal with. Liu and Huang (2011) investigating Chinese students learning English found that the reason behind their struggle is that they lack motivation. Few studies have investigated the relationship between students' motivation and their use of metacognitive listening strategies in the EFL classroom. However, no previous research has examined this relationship among Saudi EFL students. Therefore, the present study attempted to investigate the motivation types of male Saudi students ( N = 80), their frequently used metacognitive listening strategies, and the relationship between these two areas. The participants completed two surveys that were designed to elicit their motivation toward learning English and the metacognitive listening strategies they use while listening. Results of this study indicated that the participants were integratively motivated, a new finding among Saudi EFL students, and that they mostly used problem-solving strategies while listening. Also, all motivation types correlated positively and significantly with all metacognitive listening strategies, suggesting a strong relationship between motivation and metacognitive listening strategies among Saudi EFL learners. The findings present a preliminary understanding of how Saudi students tackle listening in the classroom and suggest some instructional implications for Saudi teachers to teach metacognitive listening strategies to bolster students' motivation.


Introduction
Research indicates that students across the globe consider listening to be the most challenging language skill to deal with.Vandergrift (2004) stated that listening is considered challenging because it involves some cognitive processes.He also stressed the importance of raising students' awareness of these processes by teaching them effective strategies in the classroom so they can be more proficient listeners.According to Hamouda (2013), Saudi students were noted to have problems with listening comprehension among all four language skills.Liu and Huang (2011) investigating Chinese students learning English found that the reason behind their struggle is that they lack motivation.Dörnyei and Skehan (2003) argued that learning strategies are needed to maintain students' high motivation.Motivation plays an integral role in language learning, including Saudi students' motivation to learn the language.Their behavior might be driven by multiple social factors such as culture, religion, and job promotion (Alfallaj, 1998;AlMaiman, 2005).Gardener (1985) stated that if students' attitudes toward learning a language are unfavorable, then studying a foreign language will be of no use.
Based on this background, the current study attempted to explore the type of motivation college-level students (N = 80) at the Institute of Public Administration (IPA) have, their most frequently used metacognitive listening strategy, and the relationship between these two areas.In other words, the researcher aimed to find out what integrative, instrumental, intrinsic, and extrinsic factors drive students' motivation in learning English, and whether there is a significant relationship between these factors and the 21 metacognitive listening strategies identified in Vandergrift et al. (2006).

Review of the Literature
Motivation Gardener (1985) defined motivation by specifying four aspects of motivation: a goal, effortful behavior to reach the goal, a desire to attain the goal, and positive attitudes towards the goal.He also argued that these aspects of motivation are fundamental to assess second language learners' motivation in the classroom.
Many instructors believe that motivation is a crucial factor in successful language learning.Dörnyei and Csizér (1998) stated that students who lack motivation end up failing to achieve their desired goals.Primarily, in the domain of second language acquisition, the notion of motivation came from social psychology.Dörnyei (1998) stated that most research on motivation was inspired by the two Canadian psychologists, Robert Gardner and Wallace Lambert, and research was conducted through a social psychological frame.However, Dörnyei (1998) examined motivation from a dynamic perspective and defined it as a "process whereby a certain amount of instigation force arises, initiates action, and persists as long as no other force comes into play to weaken it" (p.118).Dörnyei and Schmidt (2001) claimed that motivation in the socio-educational model consisted of three components.First, a motivated student might demonstrate some effort by doing homework or extracurricular activities as an indicator of their determination to learn the language.Second, this student has a goal, and he/she will exert great effort to achieve it.Third, this motivated student will enjoy doing this task and consider it a challenge.However, the researchers asserted that each component does not fully interpret motivation.Dörnyei and Schmidt (2001) argued that some students would still make an effort in the class, even though they find the class uninteresting and they have no intense desire to be successful.Therefore, they stated that "the truly motivated individual displays effort, desire, and affect" (p. 6).Gardner's (1985) main approach suggests two reasons why people study a second language, which he referred to as orientations.These orientations are (1) Integrative, which is defined as a favorable attitude toward the target language community; possibly a wish to integrate and adapt to a new culture through the use of the target language; and (2) Instrumental, which is a more practical reason for learning the target language, such as a job promotion or a language requirement.Gardner and Lambert (1972) proposed that an individual with an integrative orientation would highlight a greater motivational effect in studying a language, and thus would achieve L2 success.On the other hand, in recent years, extensive research into instrumental motivation has partially refuted the dominance of integrative motivation in L2 teaching and learning.Dörnyei and Schmidt (2001) claimed that "there is no reason to argue that motivation is driven only by integrative factors" (p. 7).

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Although the instrumental and integrative types of motivation that were theorized by Gardener and Lambert have previously dominated the field, more recent types of motivation related to second and foreign language learning have begun to appear as people's understanding of motivation is expanding.Around the same time as Gardner developed his Socio-Educational Model, Deci and Ryan (1985) created the intrinsic/extrinsic motivation theory.They claimed that learners who are interested in learning tasks for their own sake (intrinsic) rather than for external rewards (extrinsic) are likely to become more effective learners.Deci (1995) went on to define intrinsic motivation as the motivation that creates a sense of enjoyment within the learner, and the learner seeks a reward internally.Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is motivation from external sources and beyond oneself.
Scholars have emphasized the prevalence of intrinsic over extrinsic motivation, on the basis that intrinsic motivation is more sustainable and is voluntary.Extrinsic motivation can be easily removed by way of eliminating the reward, or if students are not obligated to learn anymore.Deci and Ryan (1985) claimed that if learners received too many rewards that might overcome their intrinsic motivation and would thus affect their motivation.Dörnyei (1998) also had a similar idea that if learners had to meet an extrinsic requirement such as mandatory reading in school, they would lose their intrinsic motivation, such as reading for enjoyment.

Motivational Studies in the Saudi Context
In an EFL context, Dörnyei (1994) believes that extrinsic and instrumental motivation have more effect on learners due to the limitations of interacting with native speakers of English or the target language's society.This view was evident in some studies in the Saudi context (e.g., Al-Otaibi, 2004;Moskovsky & Alrabai, 2009).A study conducted at the English Language Centre of the IPA in Riyadh by Al-Otaibi (2004) investigated the language learning strategies used by Saudi students and their relationship to other factors such as language proficiency level, gender, and motivation.The participants of this study were college-level students (N = 237).The researcher collected the data in three forms, one of which was a motivation questionnaire.The questionnaire included 15 items, the first five items were on integrative motivation, the following five items on instrumental motivation, and the final five on the effort to learn and desire to use the language.The results showed that the subjects reported high levels of instrumental motivation and a lower level in the effort and desire to use the language.
In another study conducted by Moskovsky and Alrabai (2009), the researchers attempted to measure if intrinsic motivation will overcome extrinsic or instrumental motivation.The researchers designed a 27-item survey for a random selection of Saudi learners studying in public schools and universities (N = 55).The survey had items measuring students' intrinsic motivation such as "I enjoy using English outside of class whenever I have a chance", or "I would study English even if it were not required by my school or university."Some items targeted instrumental motivation such as "I am learning English because knowledge of English will enable me to get a highly paid job."Other items measured the other two types of motivation, extrinsic and integrative.Results indicated that instrumental motivation was higher than all other types of motivation.
That said, a more up-to-date investigation and understanding of Saudi students' motivation toward learning English is needed, considering the huge economical and educational shift that took place during the last decade.It would be rather interesting to see if Saudi students still learn English mainly for instrumental motives, or if their views have changed in the last ten years.

Metacognitive Listening Strategies
Metacognition in cognitive psychology is "cognition about cognition" (Flavell, 2000, p. 16).Magaldi (2010) claimed that metacognition only occurs when it is supported by the use of metacognitive strategies in the language classroom.Wenden (1998) defined metacognitive strategies as "general skills through which learners manage, direct, regulate, guide their learning, i.e., planning, monitoring and evaluating" (p.519).Vandergrift et al. (2006) demonstrated the strength and validation of a five-factor model for listening strategies (see Table 1), which they called the Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ), by conducting a factor analysis with two large samples of language learners.They found that there is a significant relationship between MALQ scores and learners' listening behavior.The five factors in the MALQ (i.e., problem-solving, planning and evaluation, mental translation, personal knowledge, directed attention) are used in this study to elicit students' use of metacognitive strategies while listening to an oral text.Many empirical studies have shown that a skilled listener uses more metacognitive strategies while listening (Goh & Yusnita, 2006;Looi-Chin et al., 2017;Vandergrift, 2003;Vandergrift & Tafaghodtari, 2010).

Factor
Concept Examples

Problem-solving
The strategies used by learners to guess what they do not understand and to monitor these inferences.
Using previous knowledge of certain words to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words while listening.

Planning and evaluation
The strategies learners used to prepare themselves before listening, and then after to evaluate their effort.
Having a goal in mind while listening and thinking about similar texts that will facilitate the understanding of the new oral text

Mental translation
The strategies that are used if students felt the necessity to rely on their L1 to understand an English oral text.
A learner translating the text in their L1 while listening.
Personal knowledge Represents listeners' perceptions concerning the difficulty presented by L2 listening and their self-efficacy in L2 listening.
Items assessing the difficulty of the oral text, the confidence of the learner, and the anxiety associated with listening.

Directed attention
The strategies learners use to stay focused on the task.
Retrieving concentration when being distracted while listening and not giving up when encountering a challenging text.
Note.Adapted from Vandergrift et al. (2006) Vandergrift (2003) investigated the metacognitive strategies used by 36 junior high school students while listening to a French oral text.Students came from different language backgrounds and French was their L2.Vandergrift found that the more skilled listeners used more metacognitive strategies such as monitoring, less translation, more questioning elaboration, and clearer inferencing, whereas, the less skilled listeners used less comprehension monitoring, no effective planning, more translation, and unclear inferencing.The researcher stressed the importance of using metacognitive instruction when teaching listening comprehension so students can be more aware of the listening process and thus be more proficient.He also recommended the investigation of metacognitive strategies in other languages and with older learners to examine if similar results would be deduced.
A more recent study was conducted by Looi-Chin et al. (2017) where they attempted to identify the level of metacognitive strategies used by college students (N = 100) in Malaysia while listening, and the effect of these strategies on their listening test scores.The authors used the MALQ, which was designed by Vandergrift et al. (2006), to elicit students' use of metacognitive strategies while listening in English.The results show that students who used more metacognitive strategies achieved higher scores in the listening test.Based on the findings of their research, the authors advised EFL teachers to enhance their students' use of metacognitive strategies such as planning and evaluation, personal knowledge, directed attention, and problem-solving.
A couple of studies have used the MALQ to investigate the metacognitive listening strategies used by Saudi EFL students (Alhaisoni, 2017;Altuwairesh, 2016).Altuwairesh (2016) investigated the metacognitive listening strategies mostly used by 82 female students at King Saud University when listening to an English text.The findings elicited from the MALQ showed that students reported more use of problem-solving and directed attention strategies compared to the other three strategies.Alhaisoni (2017) reached a similar finding when he investigated the use of the five metacognitive listening strategies reported in the MALQ among 104 male and female Saudi EFL medical students.The author stated that mental translation and personal knowledge strategies were less frequently used compared to problem-solving and directed attention strategies.The participants in both studies had 6-14 years of experience learning English.That said, even though these two studies shed light on the metacognitive listening strategies used by Saudi EFL students, no study has investigated the relationship between motivation and metacognitive listening strategies in the Saudi context.

Motivation and Metacognitive Listening Strategies
Many scholars in the field of second language acquisition have asserted the importance of linking motivation to learning strategies as they potentially have positive effects on one another.Dörnyei (2003) suggested that investigating the relationship between motivational orientations and learning strategies connects L2 motivation research with L2 learning.Ziahosseini and Salehi (2007) found the higher motivation a student has, the more learning strategies he/she uses, which illustrates a high correlation between these two factors.
Motivation was also related to the use of cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies.Schmidt and Watanabe (2001) believe that if learners are studying a second language for instrumental, intrinsic, or extrinsic goals, then using cognitive and metacognitive strategies facilitates their path to achieve those goals.Goh and Yusnita (2006) also stated that using metacognitive instruction when teaching students listening skills raises students' confidence and motivation.
Few studies investigated the relationship between motivation and the use of metacognitive listening strategies in an EFL context (e.g., Harputlu & Ceylan, 2014;Kassaian & Ghadiri, 2011;Vandergrift, 2005).Vandergrift (2005) examined the relationship between motivation types (extrinsic, intrinsic, amotivation), listening strategies, and proficiency levels among 57 high school students learning French.Results showed that amotivation correlated negatively with most of the listening strategies, whereas extrinsic motivation showed a more positive correlation with some strategies.However, intrinsic motivation correlated more significantly with listening strategies than extrinsic motivation.The author concluded that the more intrinsically students were motivated, the more metacognitive listening strategies they used in the classroom.He also suggested that future research should focus on applying this study to a larger group of participants in a different cultural context.Kassaian and Ghadiri (2011) also investigated the type of motivation of upper intermediate Iranian students (N = 30) and the relationship to metacognitive awareness strategies in listening comprehension adopted from Vandergrift et al. (2006).Results showed that students used less mental translation strategies when listening.This was an expected result considering the students' proficiency level, as claimed by the authors.In addition, both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation showed a positive, although not significant, correlation with all strategies, except between intrinsic motivation and mental translation strategies.The authors stated that significant correlations were not reached due to the low sample size.
Similarly, Harputlu and Ceylan (2014) tried to discover if there was any relationship between motivation, listening strategies, and listening proficiency.Two questionnaires were administered to college students (N = 33) in Turkey.The students were exposed to English for a period of 13 years; however, their proficiency level was not mentioned in the study.The results highlighted that amotivation corresponded negatively with strategies like (problem-solving, directed attention, planning) and positively with (personal knowledge, mental translation).However, these correlations were not statistically significant.Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation correlated positively with three strategies and negatively with the remaining two.Nonetheless, these correlations also did not represent any statistical significance.The authors stated that this study should be administered on a larger group to, potentially, deduce different findings.
Although the relationship between motivation and metacognitive listening strategies is still underrepresented in L2 literature, the Saudi context is still unexplored in this regard.The abovementioned studies suggest investigating the relationship between motivation and metacognitive listening strategies in a different EFL cultural context with a larger group of learners to determine if different results can be elicited.

The Present Study
The present study investigated the type of motivation advanced Saudi universitylevel/post-secondary EFL students (N = 80) have toward learning English, and the metacognitive listening strategies they use in the language classroom.Also, this study aimed at discovering if there is a relationship between these two areas.No study has investigated the relationship between motivation and metacognitive listening strategies in the Saudi context.Therefore, the results of this study will contribute to filling this gap in the Saudi EFL context.It is also hoped that the results of this research would be a steppingstone for Saudi researchers to further examine the nature of the relationship between motivation and metacognitive listening strategies, and eventually contribute to offering some useful classroom implications for Saudi teachers.The present study sought to answer the following research questions: 1-Are the advanced students at the language center intrinsically, extrinsically, integratively, or instrumentally motivated?2-What metacognitive listening strategy is most frequently used by advanced students in the listening classroom?3-Is there a relationship between motivation types and metacognitive listening strategies?

Participants
Eighty college-level male students studying at IPA English center participated in this study.IPA is a government facility that offers diploma degrees in various administrative fields such as Banking, Accounting, Administrative Studies, Business, and Law.Students who graduate from high school and enroll in IPA have to study academic English for one year before getting admitted to a diploma program.The English program consists of four levels: level 1, level 2, level 3, and level 4. Participants' ages ranged between 18-23 years and their proficiency level is advanced (level 4).

Motivation Questionnaire
This 23-item questionnaire is adapted from a previous instrument, which was a 97-item questionnaire developed and used by Schmidt et al. (1996) in a study of the motivation of adult learners (N = 1,464) in Egypt.In adapting the questionnaire for the present study, it was shortened and modified to serve the purpose of this study.The adapted questionnaire is composed of items on the four types of motivation: intrinsic (six items), extrinsic (five items), integrative (six items), and instrumental (six items).Participants had to choose from a six-point Likert scale (one representing 'Strongly disagree' and six representing 'Strongly agree').Since this questionnaire was adapted, shortened, and translated, the internal consistency of the four subscales in the questionnaire was tested and resulted in an acceptable Cronbach alpha that ranged between .71 and .83for all subscales.The questionnaire items were validated by the original authors.

Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ)
This questionnaire consisted of 21 items and was originally developed by Vandergrift et al. (2006).The items in the MALQ were related to five metacognitive factors (see Table 1), planning and evaluation (five items), directed attention (four items), personal knowledge (three items), mental translation (three items), and problem-solving (six items).Participants had to choose from a six-point Likert scale (one representing 'Strongly disagree' and six representing 'Strongly agree').The Cronbach alpha of internal consistency for the three subscales ranged from .80 to .84.However, two scales were less reliable as they showed a weaker Cronbach alpha of .50.Both questionnaires were translated into Arabic to ensure that students understood each item, and then were sent to the Department of Research Methodologies at IPA to review the validity of the translation.Two items were reworded based on recommendations from the Department.

Data Collection and Analysis
The questionnaires were sent to students via email using Google Forms.The links to the questionnaires was sent to 200 students in the advanced level of the institution during the sixth week of the course.The consent form was integrated in the first page of the survey and students were informed that their answers are anonymous and that completing this survey was entirely voluntary.Eighty out of 200 students voluntarily responded to the questionnaires -a response rate of 40%.This low response rate was expected as instruments were administered electronically, and according to Sheehan (2006) this distribution format has received less involvement from survey respondents since the late 1980s.That said, the researcher found no bias after analyzing the data, and findings were not generalized based on this sample.
All statistical analyses were carried out using JASP (Version 0.11.1).Descriptive statistics were calculated to get mean and standard deviation scores for all responses in the Motivation questionnaire and the MALQ.Then, Pearson's r correlation coefficients were calculated for the correlations between the four motivation types and the five metacognitive listening factors.

Results
To answer the first research question, mean, standard deviation, and range scores were calculated to identify the type of motivation students have towards learning English.In addition, the percentage of students answering each item on the Likert-scale questionnaire was calculated and presented in Appendix A. Table 2 shows that the mean score for integrative motivation was higher than the other three motivation types.Approximately 64% of students strongly agreed with this integrative item "Studying English enables me to understand English books or movies", and 58% also strongly agreed with the integrative item "Studying English enables me to discuss interesting topics in English with its speakers".These two percentages constitute the highest percentages of students' total responses to the motivation questionnaire.Instrumental motivation scored the second highest mean score with 44% agreement on items such as "Being proficient in English can lead to more success and achievements in life."Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation represented the lowest mean scores among all motivation types.However, extrinsic motivation was the lowest compared to the other types of motivation where only 11% of students chose 'Strongly agree' on extrinsic motives such as "The main reason I need to learn English is to pass exams".These results show that students are more integratively motivated, which answers the first research question.
Similar descriptive statistics were calculated to elicit students' most-used metacognitive listening strategy and answer the second research question.The percentage of students answering each item on the Likert-scale questionnaire was also calculated and is presented in Appendix B. The data presented in Table 3 shows that the mean score for problem-solving strategies is higher than the other metacognitive listening strategies listed in the table.Nearly 37.5% of students strongly agreed on using the problem-solving strategy "I use my experience and knowledge to help me understand", whereas no student (0%) disagreed with using this strategy while listening to an oral text.Planning/evaluation strategies came next, followed by directed attention strategies.The mean of mental translation and personal knowledge strategies constituted the lowest scores with 1.92 and 1.84, respectively.The reported results show that students used more problem-solving strategies than the other four metacognitive listening strategies, which answers the second research question.
The third research question was answered by correlating each subscale of motivation with each subscale of metacognitive listening strategies using Pearson correlation coefficient.As demonstrated in Table 4, all correlations were positive, ranging from a strong correlation of .648(p < .001) to a moderately strong correlation of .343(p < .01).They were also significant at the .001level, excluding only the correlation between intrinsic motivation and personal knowledge which was significant at the .01level (p < .01).

Correlation between Motivation Types and Listening Strategies
First, intrinsic motivation showed only one strong relationship with planning/evaluation strategies, whereas it showed a moderate correlation with the other four listening strategies.However, the correlations between intrinsic motivation, mental translation and personal knowledge listening strategies were not as strong as the other correlations in Table 4 (r = .396(p < .001),.343(p < .01)),respectively.Although these two correlations were moderately strong, they represented the weakest relationships among motivation types and metacognitive listening strategies.
Second, unlike intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation correlated strongly with two listening strategies (i.e., planning/evaluation and directed attention).However, planning/evaluation strategies correlated more strongly with intrinsic motivation than with extrinsic motivation.The other three listening strategies also demonstrated a moderate relationship with extrinsic motivation.
Third, similar to extrinsic motivation, integrative motivation showed a robust correlation with planning/evaluation and directed attention strategies, yet this relationship was stronger than the relationship with both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.Personal knowledge, mental translation, and problem-solving strategies revealed moderately strong correlations with integrative motivation.
Fourth, the correlation between instrumental motivation, planning/evaluation, and directed attention strategies constituted the strongest correlation compared to the other motivation types with a correlation of .617(p < .001)and .648(p < .001).Moreover, contrary to the moderately strong relationships between problem-solving strategies and the previous three motivation types, instrumental motivation correlated more substantially with problem-solving (r = .517,(p < .001)).The correlation between mental translation and personal knowledge strategies remained moderately strong as the correlation was with all other motivation types.
Overall, it seems that all motivation types demonstrated a strong positive relationship with two listening strategies (planning/evaluation and directed attention), whereas they showed a moderate relationship with the other remaining three strategies.The only difference was the strong correlation between instrumental motivation and problem-solving strategies.Moreover, no weak or negative correlations appeared among all subscales, and all correlations were statistically significant.

Discussion
The present study investigated Saudi students' (N = 80) motivation towards learning English, the frequently used metacognitive listening strategy they use while listening to a text, and the relationship between motivation types and metacognitive listening strategies.With regard to the balance between integrative and instrumental motivation, the results indicated that students are more integratively motivated.These results present new findings as most of the literature regarding the motivation of Saudi students suggested that students are instrumentally motivated (Al-Otaibi, 2004;Moskovsky & Alrabai, 2009).However, these studies are older, and the demographic of Saudi Arabia has changed since those studies were completed.Students may have more integrative motivation now compared to previous studies because of the educational and economical transition that is happening now in Saudi Arabia.Education is receiving more attention and the government is offering scholarships for students to complete their studies in English-speaking countries.This can be supported by the motivation questionnaire, as nearly 44% of students strongly agreed with the integrative motivation item "Knowledge of English will help me understand English culture".It is also possible that students' advanced proficiency level in English has influenced their own motivation and thinking; thus, they are not only studying English to pass exams.Gardner and Lambert (1972) proposed that an individual with an integrative orientation would display greater motivation to study a language, and thus would achieve success in the L2.In the present study, instrumental motivation still displayed a strong mean score and came in second place following integrative motivation.This result was predictable considering the globalization and economic growth Saudi Arabia is experiencing.The current trends might lead students to learn English in order to be competitive in the job market and gain a good job.Finally, it was not surprising that extrinsic motivation had the lowest mean score compared to the other types of motivation.Many scholars previously claimed that students should not be studying English for only extrinsic factors, or learning would be of no use (Deci & Ryan, 1985;Dörnyei, 1998).
Regarding the second research question, advanced students at IPA appeared to use more problem-solving strategies and less mental translation strategies.These results are consistent with the literature (Alhaisoni, 2017;Altuwairesh, 2016;Kassaian & Ghadiri, 2011;Vandergrift, 2003).These studies have found that higher proficiency learners tend to use more problemsolving strategies which shows that they are good at inferencing.Higher proficiency learners also use fewer translation strategies while listening because they are more confident with their language skills and do not need to rely on their L1s, as less proficient learners would.Contrary to the findings of Alhaisoni (2017), Altuwairesh (2016), and Kassaian and Ghadiri (2011), students in the current study showed better planning/evaluation strategies, which possibly means that the participants in this study have relatively higher goal-setting skills and can be considered more autonomous in their learning.However, as illustrated in Table 3, the difference in mean score between planning/evaluation strategies and problem-solving is rather large, which means that even though students might have reported higher use of planning/evaluation strategies, they still would benefit from more training in this area.Finally, personal knowledge strategies constituted the lowest proportion of students' use of metacognitive listening strategies.This finding was not unexpected as advanced students may feel that listening is not as difficult as other language skills such as reading or writing.Nevertheless, personal knowledge strategies merit further investigation in the Saudi context as no study, to the author's best knowledge, has explored the use of these strategies among Saudi learners.
In response to the third research question, planning/evaluation and directed attention were the only two strategies that consistently and strongly correlated with all motivation types.This consistency suggests that the more motivated the listener, the greater the tendency to report planning/evaluation and directed attention strategies.Also, as reported in the results, the correlation between instrumental motivation and these two particular strategies was the strongest compared to the other motivation types.One potential explanation for this finding is that students with instrumental goals such as getting employed or the desire to integrate into the business world may have the skills of good planning and focused goal setting, as well as directing their attention towards their goals.That being said, it is interesting to note that even though students reported using problem-solving strategies more frequently than any other listening strategy (see Table 3), these strategies correlated strongly with only instrumental motivation.This result could be due to the high standard deviation score, which means that although students reported frequent use of problem-solving strategies, their responses varied greatly across the items in that subscale.It was not surprising that personal knowledge and mental translation strategies did not correlate as strongly with all motivation types as the other listening strategies did.One explanation of this moderately strong correlation is the low mean score reported in Table 2 for these strategies.Another explanation could be the weak internal consistency of the subscales measuring these two strategies, which might have influenced the results.Overall, these findings are in contrast with findings reported by Harputlu and Ceylan (2014), Kassaian andGhadiri (2011), andVandergrift (2005), in which they found some negative, insignificant, and weak correlations between motivation and metacognitive listening strategies.However, the findings of this study support the predictions of those authors; that is the correlation between motivation types and metacognitive listening strategies would result in more significant correlations if tested on a larger population.This significance suggests that there is a meaningful relationship between motivation and the use of metacognitive listening strategies in the case of advanced students at IPA and that this relationship is not due to chance, a finding that is consistent with the wide literature.

Conclusion and Classroom Implications
The current study investigated the type of motivation advanced level students (N = 80) have towards learning English, their most frequently used metacognitive listening strategy in class, and the relationship between four motivation types and five metacognitive listening strategies.The results of this study indicated that integrative motivation is the most common among the participants, and that problem-solving strategies are used more than the other four listening strategies.Also, another finding was that none of the motivation types correlated negatively or insignificantly with the metacognitive listening strategies, which contrasted with previous research that investigated the correlation between these two areas.In addition, the results demonstrated that planning/evaluation and directed attention strategies correlated strongly with all motivation types.
There are a couple of limitations to the present study.One limitation is that due to time constraints and lack of accessibility, only advanced male students were targeted.Therefore, it should be noted that these findings cannot be generalized to all Saudi learners and that they are only representative of the sample reported in this study.Another limitation is that this study only used questionnaires to collect data from participants.Even though questionnaires are used more often in quantitative studies and considered a convenient and sufficient way to gather large amounts of data, triangulating this with some qualitative methods could increase the validity of the study's methodology.
Despite the limitations mentioned above, this study has some classroom implications.First, since students reported weak usage of some metacognitive listening strategies in the classroom, teachers are advised not to teach those strategies as they are mostly used by less skilled listeners as shown in this study and in the wide literature (Alhaisoni, 2017;Altuwairesh, 2016;Goh & Yusnita, 2006;Looi-Chin et al., 2017;Vandergrift, 2003;Vandergrift & Tafaghodtari, 2010).Instructors can use the MALQ in their classrooms to determine which metacognitive strategy students are struggling with and implement lesson plans that explicitly target that strategy.Second, as was apparent from the results of this study, motivation has a strong relationship with the use of metacognitive strategies, which should encourage teachers to teach metacognitive listening strategies to maintain or bolster students' motivation.
In sum, although this study used more participants compared to other studies conducted previously, future researchers could replicate this study with a larger population, across proficiency levels, and with a sample that includes both males and females.Also, as was mentioned previously, this study is considered the first of its kind in the Saudi context.Therefore, future researchers in Saudi Arabia are encouraged to use this study as a base for further investigation into the relationship between motivation and metacognitive listening strategies.

Table 2
Descriptive Statistics for Motivation Subscales

Table 3
Descriptive Statistics for Metacognitive Listening Strategies Subscales