Content Analysis of Metacognitive Reading Strategies in the Reading Textbook Mosaic Two

Research highlighted the positive effects of reading strategies among language learners on their reading comprehension. Studies investigated instructional programs and trained teachers and students to implement these strategies. However, there appears to be a lack of studies on content analysis of reading strategies in ELT textbooks. This study investigated the reading strategies implemented in an ELT reading textbook; Mosaic Two. Descriptive content analysis was conducted. The framework used was based on time and stage which are pre-reading and post-reading strategies, and the subcategories of reading strategies were based on metacognitive knowledge categorized as global, problem solving, and supporting strategies. The results show that the book implemented pre-reading and post-reading strategies extensively which can accommodate teachers and students in a reading course. Further research can examine more reading textbooks and compare results.

Reading is a skill that has been regarded as one of the main components of language skills alongside writing, listening, and speaking and has been given particular interest in education (Pressley, 2002).Several taxonomies have been introduced in order to provide an instructional tool through textbooks that can help teachers train students on improving their reading comprehension skills such as Munby's taxonomy of micro-skills (Alderson, 2000).Munby (1978) listed several aspects of reading skills such as recognizing a script of a language, deducing the meaning, and using unfamiliar lexical items, skimming, scanning, interpreting the text and more.However, this list has been criticized for being overlapping and unclear (Alderson, 2000).This led researchers to look for alternative approaches and reading strategies to better understand the factors that can have an effect on improving reading comprehension such as Grabe (1991) who emphasized the role of metacognitive strategies.Pressley (2002) emphasized that reading comprehension is successful when metacognitive knowledge of reading occurs.This happens when readers predict what a text is about and connect it to prior knowledge before reading, ask questions during reading, and summarize what was read.
Further research found a variety of reading strategies which needed to be classified into smaller units.Different approaches classified reading strategies into different types such as Paris, Wasik and Turner (1996) who classified reading strategies according to time and stage.They categorized them into pre-reading, during, and post-reading strategies.Also, a reliable and valid tool called The Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory (henceforth, MARSI) investigated the reading strategies used by skillful readers to reach an understanding of how one can improve reading comprehension skills (Mokhtari and Reichard, 2002).It was first implemented regarding first language readers and then it was developed to accommodate second language readers and was called The survey of reading strategies (henceforth, SORS) (Mokhtari and Sheorey, 2002).It was based on three subcategorization of reading strategies, namely: global reading strategies, problem-solving strategies, and supporting strategies.
The importance of raising awareness of reading strategies among second language learners and teachers has been highlighted in recent attempts that investigated the use of reading strategies and their effect on comprehension (Muijselaar et al., 2017) This study was set to investigate the reading strategies implemented in a second language textbook Mosaic Two by conducting content analysis.It aimed at analyzing the exercises to investigate the type of reading strategy used and the subcategorizations of each type and their frequencies.This would shed light on the appropriacy of the reading strategies used in the textbook for target students.

Literature Review
Previous studies found positive effects of reading strategies on reading comprehension (Muijselaar et al., 2017;Ghahari and Basanjideh, 2017;Rastegar et al., 2017).Different types of reading strategies were used among first and second language learners such as global strategies, problem solving strategies, and supporting strategies (Chevalier et al., 2015;Al-Mekhlafi, 2018;Shehadeh, 2015;Li, 2014;Armbrecht, 2018).Other studies emphasized the advantages of explicit instruction of reading strategies in the classroom (Vollinger et al., 2018;Lee, 2015) and the benefits of content analysis of second language textbooks in reflecting implemented strategies (Richards, 2001;Harris, Fleck and Loughman, 2000;AlGhamdi, 2017;Alkatheery 2011).Muijselaar et al. (2017) examined the developmental relations between reading comprehension and reading strategies in a longitudinal study.They controlled three variables that might affect reading comprehension which are vocabulary, fluency, and working memory.The results indicated that it was a two-way relationship.They found that reading strategies affected comprehension and comprehension affected using the strategies.Rastegar et al. (2017) conducted a study on second language learners majoring in English literature and English translation at an Iranian University.The study utilized SORS by Mokhtari and Sheorey (2002) and a TOEFL reading comprehension test to investigate the correlation between using metacognitive reading strategies and reading comprehension achievement.The results showed that there was a positive correlation between them.Ghahari and Basanjideh (2017) investigated the awareness of language learners of reading strategies and their effect on autonomy, problem solving ability, and reading comprehension.The instruments used were the Learning Autonomy Questionnaire, the Problem-Solving Inventory, SORS, and a Reading Comprehension Test Battery.The results showed the awareness of learners had a significant effect on problem solving and reading comprehension; however, there was no significant effect on autonomy.Chevalier et al. (2015) studied reading strategies in addition to learning and studying strategies among university students with reading difficulties.They compared students with no history of reading difficulty and students who have difficulty in reading.They found that the latter were less likely to apply metacognitive strategies to reading especially selecting main ideas.

Reading strategies of L2 learners
Al-Mekhlafi (2018) used MARSI to look at how frequently EFL learners who are studying in higher education institutions in Oman think they use selected EFL reading strategies.The results showed that all levels from beginners to advances used all three types of reading strategies (global, problem-solving, and supporting) with no significant differences between them.Shehadeh (2015) researched the type of reading strategies used by ESL University students with different proficiency levels in Palestine.A self-reported questionnaire and reading comprehension passages were utilized.Their findings show that the most prominent type used by students in all proficiency levels was allocated for the global strategies followed by problem solving and the least used were supporting strategies.Their results also indicated a correlation between global strategies and comprehension.
A study by Li (2014) investigated the use of reading strategies among EFL tertiary students.The study conducted a self-report study following Mokhtari and Sheorey (2002)'s SORS.The results showed that the most prominent reading strategy used was classified as problem-solving strategies such as re-reading, regaining concentration and guessing the text meaning.The least strategy used was supporting strategies such as reading aloud, questioning, paraphrasing and translating.Armbrecht (2018) conducted a quantitative study on the reading strategies that college students use when reading in online courses.This study utilized the MARSI survey to collect data.The result showed that students with a higher GPA used all three types of reading strategies, whereas those with medium and low GPA scores depended on post-reading strategies.

Instruction of reading strategies and reading comprehension
Vollinger et al. ( 2018) evaluated the effects of a reading strategy instructional program on reading competence of third-grade students.They assessed performance of the experimental group through multiple tests;16 times before, while and after the intervention.The control group was assessed only 8 times.The results of a within and between-group analysis showed that reading strategy instruction had a significant positive effect on reading competence.Lee (2015) investigated the effect of explicit reading strategy instruction on Korean EFL learners.The results showed significant improvement in the posttest and the usage of metacognitive, cognitive, and supporting strategies.Explicit instruction raised students' awareness of the effectiveness of reading strategies and improved their attitudes towards English reading.

Content analysis of language textbooks
Acknowledging the importance of explicit reading strategy instruction in developing reading comprehension among second language users, researchers investigated what is agreed to be the main instructional material in the classroom, the textbook (Richards, 2001).Harris, Fleck and Loughman (2000) found that textbooks can be investigated thoroughly by conducting content analysis.It helped in revealing the contents of the textbook and the strategies used in it, in addition to helping teachers select the appropriate textbook for the target learners.Moreover, content analysis on second language textbooks allows for the analysis of the explicit and implicit metalanguage of pragmatics content (AlGhamdi, 2017).It was also able to analyze the presentation of the cultures of Centre and Periphery countries in regional ELT textbooks (Alkatheery, 2011).
From what has been mentioned, it can be deduced that research has highlighted the importance of reading strategies among language learners.The focus was on investigating the strategies that learners use and their awareness of these strategies.It also investigated instructional programs and emphasized the importance of training teachers and students to implement these strategies.However, there appears to be a lack of studies on content analysis of these reading strategies in ELT textbooks.Also, a content analysis of Mosaic Two has not been conducted.Therefore, this study attempts to fill in this gap and conduct a content analysis on the reading strategies used in the exercises of Mosaic Two.The study aimed at answering the following research questions: 1. What are the types and frequencies of pre-reading tasks mentioned in the textbook?2. What are the types and frequencies of post-reading tasks mentioned in the textbook?3. Which reading strategy was the most dominant in the textbook?

Methodology Material
The study analyzed the reading tasks in the student's reading textbook in Mosaic Two.The reading tasks were the only items analyzed.This study excluded the rest of the elements in the textbook such as the titles, pictures, reading passages, footnotes and so on.

Textbook selection
Mosaic Two was selected because it is used as a textbook for a reading course in the department of English at the college of languages and translation at King Saud University in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.Also, it has not been analyzed to investigate the implemented reading strategies.

Textbook description
The textbook named Mosaic Two (6 th edition) is published by Mc-Graw Hill in New York.The main focus of the book is reading skills and strategies with the aim of developing students' academic achievement in reading.It consists of ten chapters.
Each chapter is divided into three parts.Part 1 is allocated for reading skills and strategies.Part 2 is concerned with the main ideas and details.Part 3 is called tying it together.It is addresses summarizing and making connections of what has been mentioned in the chapter.At the end of each chapter, a self-assessment log is provided where students are expected to check the reading strategies and vocabulary they have learned.The book states that it aims at developing students' reading skills to develop their academic achievement through a provocative, authentic, and strategic development program.The ten chapters in Mosaic Two are: (1) Language and Learning, (2) Danger and Daring, (3) Gender and Relationships, (4) Beauty and Aesthetics, (5) Transitions, (6) The Mind, (7) Working, (8) Breakthroughs, (9) Art and Entertainment, (10) Conflict and Reconciliation.

Data Collection
The reading strategies in the exercises in the book were investigated.Each reading task was classified under pre-reading or post-reading.Then the type of each reading task was specified according to the subcategories defined in the theoretical framework.Finally, the number of occurrences and the percentages of each occurrence and the total was calculated.The results were then discussed.

Content Analysis
The content analysis approach used to analyze the textbook of the study is considered a conceptual deductive one according to Huckin (2004).That is because the data was coded and categorized according to a specific framework to calculate occurrences and frequencies.The data was analyzed by identifying reading strategies and their subcategories following Paris, Wasik and Turner (1996) and Mokhtari and Sheorey (2002).The purpose was to investigate their occurrences and frequencies.

Reading strategies and sub-categories
This study investigated the reading strategies implemented in the exercises which were divided into pre-reading types and post reading types following Paris, Wasik and Turner (1996).Then these categories were further classified into more specified subcategories following Mokhtari and Sheorey (2002) which were global strategies, problem solving strategies, and solution strategies.
According to Mokhtari and Sheorey (2002), global strategies include the strategies readers use to manage their reading, such as setting a reading purpose, previewing the text, predicting or skimming, etc. Problem solving strategies involve adjusting reading speed, guessing the meaning of words, checking for comprehension, etc.Finally, supporting strategies are involve using external learning aids to comprehend a text such as using a dictionary, taking notes, underlining, highlighting, summarizing, etc.

Reliability
Reliability was ensured by investigating repeatability and reproducibility (Allen and Knight, 2009).To ensure repeatability, the researcher piloted the analysis by analyzing a sample (3 chapters of the book) and after a week, the same sample was reanalyzed using the same scheme to ensure there were no differences in the frequencies and percentages.As for reproducibility, another examiner assessed the same sample using the same scheme to ensure no differences were noted.The inter-rater reliability coefficient that was calculated was 1.

Validity
Face validity, content validity, and construct validity were considered following Mackey and Gass (2016).Face validity was tested and showed that the analyses appear to analyze the data for types of pre-reading and post-reading tasks.Content and construct validity were measured by analyzing the data according to the categories identified by Mokhtari and Sheorey (2002) which have been proven to be valid and reliable measures of reading strategies.

Results
The analysis examined the exercises in the book and focused on the reading strategies used.All the pre-reading and post-reading types and subcategories found in the selected textbooks were then listed in tables for analysis.To answer the research questions, a content analysis was carried out on the selected textbook to collect data.The questions were answered based on the results of the qualification of the data to see whether the materials truly provide the students with pre-reading and post-reading tasks and what types they are.Quantifying measures were analyzed to have a better understanding of the most prominent exercises.

Pre-reading Tasks
There were 11 pre-reading tasks occurring 57 times in the book.Two subcategories of reading strategies were found.They were global strategies and problem-solving strategies.The former occurred more prominently than the latter.There were no occurrences of supporting strategies in the pre-reading tasks.See Table 1.

Global strategies in pre-reading tasks
The global strategies found involved connecting prior knowledge to the topic which was the most frequently used pe-reading task.The second most occurring type was previewing which was found 9 times.After that skimming for main ideas occurred 6 times.The least occurring task was predicting occurring 5 times.

Problem-solving strategies in pre-reading tasks
The tasks categorized as problem-solving strategies were varied.The most common type was guessing the meaning from context which occurred 12 times.Scanning occurred 8 times, and filling the gap with the correct word occurred 3 times.Making comparisons, answering WH-Questions, matching terms to their definitions and True and False statements are the least frequently occurring types.

Post-reading Tasks
There were 38 post-reading tasks occurring 132 times in the book.All three subcategories of reading strategies (global, problem-solving, and supporting strategies) were found.The most subcategory used was the supporting strategy followed by problem-solving tasks.Global strategies was the least.See Table 2.

Supporting strategies in post-reading tasks
Supporting strategies were the most prominent types in post-reading tasks occurring 71 times in 16 types of tasks.The type of task used the most was the guided conversation which occurred 21 times.Reflecting occurred 11 times followed by researching 10 times.Writing practice, summarizing, making inferences, and paraphrasing occurring 8,7,3,2 times respectively.The least type used each occurring once were: sequencing, creating a story board, illustrating ideas, debating, ranking arguments, conducting interviews, role playing, underlining and glossing, and mapping.

Problem-solving strategies in the post-reading tasks
The tasks categorized as problem-solving strategies were 21 and were used 58 times.Cloze-procedure which was found 12 times was the most commonly strategy used.Scanning for specific information and answering WH-questions were repeated 7 times each.Comparing and contrasting was found 5 times, and recalling information was used 4 times.Getting meaning from context, time-reading and true and false statements occurred three times each.Forming different parts of speech to complete sentences, forming Sentences, and matching expressions with their definitions occurred twice.The least types found each of which were used once were Problem solving, identifying supporting ideas, analyzing the passage for specific elements, vocabulary builder, identifying facts from opinions, correcting false statements, analyzing cause and effect, negative questions and sentence insertion questions.

Global strategies in post-reading tasks
The global strategies found were three types of tasks, each of which occurred once.These types were expressing the theme, completing a schematic table, and skimming for main ideas.

Reading strategies in the pre-reading and the post-reading tasks
The major differences between the sub-categories of the reading strategies used in both the prereading and the post-reading tasks were compared.Table 3 shows that the total number of tasks that included reading strategies were 189.There were only two sub-categories of the reading strategies in the pre-reading tasks which were global and problem-solving strategies, while the post-reading tasks included all three strategies which were: global, problem-solving, and supporting strategies.Figure 1 shows that the most prominent reading strategy used in the book was the problemsolving strategy followed by the supporting strategy and the least strategy used was the global strategy.
Figure 1 Reading Strategies in pre-reading and post-reading strategies

Discussion
The study was set out to investigate the reading strategies used in the second language reading textbook called Mosaic Two (6 th edition).The aim was to investigate the type and frequency of the reading strategies used in the textbook.The results show that the exercises in the textbook included a wide range of reading strategies reaching 189 pre and post reading tasks.According to Pressley (2002) and Vollinger et al. (2018), this variety will allow students to practice using reading strategies before reading and implement more exercises after reading a passage which would facilitate their comprehension.
The results also show that the global reading strategies occurred more in the pre-reading tasks than the post-reading tasks because it helps students use their prior knowledge to predict what the passage is about and relate their schematic knowledge to what is mentioned in the text.Research has shown that schematic knowledge is one of the reader variables that facilitate comprehension (Alderson, 2000).
Furthermore, supporting strategies were not included in the pre-reading tasks, but were applied extensively in the post-reading tasks.This could be related to the characteristics of supporting strategies which involve using external supplementary material to increase comprehension on specific details of a reading passage which occurs after reading it.Mokhtari and Sheorey (2002) mentioned that supporting categories allow students to further examine a passage after reading it by facilitating outside material which would enhance their understanding of what has been read.Also, problem-solving strategies have been used more in post-reading than in prereading tasks due to the nature of these two stages.Wasik and Turner (1996) mentioned that pre-reading strategies are more concerned with general information whereas the post-reading strategies are more detailed oriented and require specific investigations of what has been read.However, applying some problem-solving strategies before reading can also help familiarize readers with the passage and lead to better comprehension.
Moreover, the results show that that the post-reading strategies and tasks were more in quantity than the pre-reading tasks and the types used were more varied such as researching, writing, summarizing, reflecting, and more.Armbrecht (2018) found that learners with low GPA scores did not use post-reading strategies as much as learners with high GPAs.Therefore, including more post-reading strategies in the textbook would encourage students to use their metacognitive knowledge to investigate the passage further in order to achieve a comprehensible understanding of the passage.According to Lee (2015) and Vollinger et al. (2018), this variety in types and quantity would also raise the awareness of students on reading strategies and would instruct them on how to implement them to improve their comprehension skills.
The approach of this study shows that content analysis can reflect a detailed perception on the strategies used in a specific content.This is in line with Harris, Fleck and Loughman (2000) who emphasized the importance of content analysis in analyzing data.It is also in line with other research studies who have investigated second language textbooks for specific data and were able to find results that support their theory through content analysis such as AlGhamdi, (2017) and Alkatheery (2011).
Finally, the content analysis show that the selected textbook has implemented prereading and post-reading strategies extensively including global, problem-solving, and supporting strategies.This variety facilitates students' comprehension skills.It also helps provide a rich instructional material to implement and practice reading strategies in reading courses.
To conclude, the overall results show that the content analysis of the selected textbook was able to investigate the type of frequency of the reading strategies used to facilitate reading comprehension skills of second language learners.It also showed that the book implemented global, problem-solving and supporting reading strategies extensively which accommodates teachers and students in a reading course.

Limitations
This study has limited its analysis to only one edition of a textbook.Further research can investigate more reading textbooks and editions.They could also be compared in order to have a better understanding of the type of material provided by such textbooks.

Implications for Practice
It is advisable that teachers, educators, department heads and directors conduct a content analysis that can highlight the types and frequencies of the implemented tasks in order to choose the suitable textbook or supplement required textbooks with materials that can fulfill the objectives of the curriculum.Content analysis can be simply conducted by (1) Investigating the reading strategies by analyzing the types and frequencies of the pre-reading strategies and the post reading strategies implemented in the textbook, (2) Classifying each reading task under pre-reading or post-reading task, (3) Specifying the type of each reading task according to the subcategories defined in the theoretical framework, (4) Calculating the number of occurrences and the percentages of each occurrence and the total, and (5) Analyzing the most dominant reading strategy from the data collected.20%

Table 1
Sub-Categories of pre-reading strategies

Table 2
Sub-categories of Post-reading strategies

Table 3
Reading strategies in pre-reading and post-reading tasks